Simply put, the study of music and its cultural
implications from an anthropological perspective is know as
ethnomusicology. The field of ethnomusicology has been until
recent years, an area often found outside of anthropology
departments. Musicology was often the more substantial method to
studying and interpreting music, however it maintains a very limited
perspective based on classical western notions. As
anthropologists know, placing ethnocentric boundaries on cultures does
not provide a realistic understanding to that of which we intend to
study. The study of art, is often thought of as being physical
and tangible objects, which is why music has been somewhat problematic
in past ethnographic studies (MacClancy, 2002). Although there
are often instruments which can be examined or physically examined for
its craftsmanship, these instruments are simply the tools used in
creating music, without the performer the instruments do not play
themselves. The manner in which an instrument is played is as
much dependent on the skill of the musician as it is their
understanding of the cultural message they which to convey (MacClancy,
2002). It is the performances and relationships between the
musicians, music, participants and spectators which separate an
ethnomusicologist from the limited interpretations of musicologists
(MacClancy, 2002).
John M. Chernoff is an ethnomusicologist who has
spent most of his time focusing on African music. Rhythmic and
percussion instruments are at the heart of his focus, which reflects
his own personal interest and participation in music as a drummer
(Glasco, 1981). His involvement in African music goes beyond that
of anthropologists of the passive persuasion, rather, Chernoff has been
a student to the master drummers of Dagomba found in northern Ghana
(Glasco, 1981). By participating for over a decade as an able
Dagomba performer, Chernoff has put himself in a position which best
suits the purpose of an ethnomusicologist, as an interpreter of culture
through music.
Drawing from his experience as a musician, Chernoff
has somewhat changed the way ethnography is normally conducted.
Rather than study African people, Chernoff has become the student and
is learning from the Africans and their teachings (Glasco,
1981). Perhaps those best suited to study music and culture
are those who do more than simply stand in the background watching and
listening.
My first impressions upon reading Chernoff’s work,
was the ease in which his writing flowed from one idea to the
next. After reading several pieces of Chernoff’s work, it becomes
apparent that the fluidity of his writing was a secondary bonus when
compared to the vast and in-depth understanding he presents when
discussing his particular views of ethnomusicology. Aside from
actually partaking in a discussion with John Chernoff, the best means
in presenting his ideas and contributions to the field of
ethnomusicology, is to examine several of his pieces of written
work. In doing so, for the purpose of this paper, I would like to
examine several articles which will help to provide, not only a
stronger understanding of ethnomusicology, but to understand the
thought processes in which an ethnographer must deal with throughout a
career in anthropology. I have selected six articles by John M.
Chernoff from which I will base my analysis: The Rhythmic Medium in
African Music, Basic Conga Drum Rhythms in African-American Musical
Styles, Ideas of Culture and the Challenges of Music, Music of the
Dagomba of Ghana [Review], In Sorcery’s Shadow: A Memoir of
Apprenticeship Among the Songhay of Niger [Review], Dried Millet
Breaking: Time, Words, and Song in the Woi Epic of the Kepelle
[Review], and one review critiquing Chernoff’s book, African Rhythm and
African Sensibility: Aesthetics and Social Action in African Musical
Idioms [Review] by Laurence Glasco. Each of the previously
mentioned articles will be briefly reviewed, followed by some
commentary on Chernoff’s ideas. Some final thoughts regarding
ethnomusicology and the contributions of John M. Chernoff will finnish
up the paper.
The Articles:
The Rhythmic Medium in African Music:
The Rhythmic Medium in African Music, was published
in 1991 under the Journal, New Literary History. Chernoff
explains that his paper is about the nature of rhythmic medium in
African music, that is, the conditions and exchange of participatory
actions between performers and spectators. In order to better
understand these interactions between performers and spectators of
African music, Chernoff divides his analysis into two contextual
theories. The first of his theories is understanding the
importance of physically observing a musical performance. As Chernoff
states in his article, “we are considering the aesthetic effect of
rhythm in an art that exists, not an art that can or should be”
(Chernoff, 1991). This idea of observation is redundant
throughout much of Chernoff’s work, especially in his arguments towards
the over imaginative interpretations of musicologist (MacClancy,
2002). The second theory suggested by Chernoff, is concerned with
the specific cultural orientation of African rhythms and how those
rhythms are organized into several fundamental principals involved in
the participation of both the musicians and spectators (Chernoff,
1991). Chernoff explains that the degree of participation from
African spectators and the musicians are in a delicate balance
(Chernoff, 1991). The musicians must provide ample room for
spectators to participate in within the rhythms they create, without
losing the tension need to keep the aesthetics of the rhythmic medium
(Chernoff, 1991). What keeps the rhythms interesting and evolving
in order to avoid stagnation in the music, is the pressure which the
musicians attempt to put on each other in order to test their ability
to keep a focused perspective (Chernoff, 1991). The balance
between the musician and the participation of the spectators is the
ultimate goal (Chernoff, 1991).
It is understandable why Chernoff emphasizes the
importance of physically observing a performance. To comprehend
the interactions between performers and spectators while listening to
an audio recording or analyzing sheet music, would be very difficult
indeed. if we consider the the fact that these African
performances follow guidelines but are often improvised in nature,
further supports Chernoff’s argument. Often when reading
ethnographic material, it seems almost impractical to take what is
written as absolute truth. The importance of witnessing events
and people in person has a lot more to offer than can be written down
and examined out of its original physical context.
Basic Conga Drum Rhythms in African-American Musical Styles:
The article Basic Conga Drum Rhythms in
African-American Musical Styles, was collaboratively written between
Hafiz Shabazz Farel Johnson and John M. Chernoff as an introduction to
the rhythmic styles of African-American music (Johnson & Chernoff.
1991). Johnson and Chernoff begin by explaining that all though
there are different means by which music can be separated into
“styles”, they have chosen to focus on rhythmic elements (Johnson &
Chernoff. 1991). The approach to this article seems based more on
personal experience with music and rhythm, or as Johnson and Chernoff
contest, “Our qualifications for generalizing about these very complex
styles stand on more than fifty years, experience between us, learning,
playing, performing, and teaching drumming” (1991). The article
does provide and easy model to those interested in understanding
African-American popular music, with little to no musical experience,
however at first glance I felt like the approach taken by Johnson and
Chernoff was very limited and tremendously over generalized.
As I continued to read, the article became more of a guide to musicians
and music lovers, rather than an ethnographic account of North-American
Popular culture. Several examples of drum rhythms were given in
their basic form and used to help conclude with the following
ideas. The first is that basic rhythms make up the foundations of
what can be played, and second, that supporting rhythms make up the
feelings and add texture to the base rhythms (Johnson & Chernoff.
1991).
The simplicity of this article was undoubtedly
increased by Chernoff’s style of explaining complex ideas, however, I
felt that perhaps the article should have considered a more complex
analysis as I know the author is quite capable of conveying more
thought provoking ideas.
Ideas of Culture and the Challenge of Music:
Ideas of Culture and the Challenge of Music, is
an article by John M. Chernoff taken from a collection works compiled
by Jeremy MacClancy in his book, Exotic No More: Anthropology on the
Front Lines (2002). Chernoff’s article introduces the study of
ethnomusicology, the challenges music has presented in the study of
culture and some of the positions Chernoff takes concerning the
importance of ethnomusicology (MacClancy. 2002). The first
several pages of this article examine the idea of culture and how art,
and more specifically, how music relates to it. It is apparent
from Chernoff’s discussion of culture, that he is not satisfied with a
single simple definition of what culture represents. Chernoff
directs his argument against traditional western perspectives conveying
art as being, “that which is thought to be furthest from necessities of
life” MacClancy. 2002). Chernoff explains this notion of art as
an instance of a “derived element of culture”, is based on the
notion that art is a secondary function of culture and it is only when
the basic needs of life, (food, water and shelter), are provided for,
that art is used to enhance the framework of society (MacClancy.
2002). Chernoff continues to explain that this narrow view of
culture and art is the essence of Western dominance over the world, and
during these times, anthropology did not come forward and challenge
these ideals (MacClancy. 2002). The point Chernoff is attempting
to provide is, within the old frame work of anthropological study,
music, unlike other physical art forms were not easily available to be
studied (MacClancy. 2002). It is not until modern times, that the
availability of music on a global basis has been possible (MacClancy.
2002).
The change from the study of musicology to that of
ethnomusicology is justified by Chernoff as he explains that, “it is
not possible to understand a piece of non-Western music from a score or
a recording” (MacClancy. 2002). This idea of misunderstanding
non-Western music from a musicological perspective makes perfect sense
when dealing with an improvised aspect of music, however,
improvisations can be based on social or situational references,
something which will not be found in written musical notations
(MacClancy. 2002). This has every bit to do with the increase in
global mobility. As more and more people are introduced to the
music of the world, the more people have the ability to challenge the
statements of others and their views of music (MacClancy. 2002).
The availability of world music has created a move away from musicology
and its elitist perspective towards ethnomusicology (MacClancy.
2002). The next review will give us an insight into how care must
be taken when portraying another cultures music.
Music of the Dagomba Ghana:
Music of the Dagomba of Ghana, is a recording by
Verna Gillis, David Moises Perez Martinez and accompanied by notes by
Jacqueline Cogdell DjeDje, which Chernoff, from the severity of his
review, could not help but write. This review not only gives us
an impression of how severe Chernoff can be, it also provides a fine
example of the expertise he posses concerning African music. The
opening statement by Chernoff in this review sets the tone of his
disappointment immediately, “it is unfortunate that a great musical
tradition should be represented by this record” (Chernoff. 1984).
From poor recording quality, to the erroneous notes provided by Ms.
DjeDje, Chernoff lays down the lawn concerning the problems this record
in a manner that is laughable due to the harshness of his tone
(Chernoff. 184). Chernoff even consults the local drumming elders
and confirms his suspicions that this album was recorded in no more
than a short visit (Chernoff. 1984). Chernoff does end his
complaint about this record with a good point saying, “this kind of
irresponsibility has no place in a collaborative world where Western
students of the Third World are struggling to overcome the colonial
legacy of bad faith” (Chernoff. 1984). This recording has
obviously struck a nerve or two, but Chernoff has good reason to point
out the problems of this recording as it does encourage a lack of
respect and “bad faith” .
In Sorcery’s Shadow: A Memoir of Apprenticeship Among the Songhay of Niger:
The book In Sorcery’s Shadow, by Paul Stoller and
Cheryl Olkes has found Mr. Chernoff is a much more pleasant tone during
his review. The book is about Stoller’s nine year apprenticeship
as a sorcerer with the Songhay of Niger (Chernoff. 1988). There
is immediately a link between the experiences of Stroller being taught
by the Songhay and Chernoff’s belief of witnessing and experiencing
ethnographic events first hand. Along with this sense of
experience and physically taking part in events, Chernoff has a
fascination with combining personal interactions with people and
factual information normally considered in an ethnographic account as
this statement suggests, “to me, Stroller’s focus on the people he knew
is an essential complement to the book’s topical focus on sorcery”
(Chernoff. 1988). The idea of becoming a part of the cultural
process is something Chernoff can relate to in Stroller’s memoirs, and
is reflected in his drumming experience with the Dagomba (Glasco. 1981,
Chernoff. 1988).
Dried Millet Breaking: Time, Words, and Song in the Woi Epic of the Kpelle:
The review of Ruth M. Stone’s book, Dried Millet
Breaking, provides yet another confirmation to Chernoff’s feelings
towards the complexities of culture (Chernoff. 1989). Stone’s
account of an epic performance by the Kpelle culture is managed in
a very detailed manner, however, Chernoff makes the following
comment regarding the outcome of Stone’s work, “Others may feel the
need for a text that uses the epic as a wide-angle lens to portray
Kpelle culture; the epic, however, does not lend itself to a
comprehensive set of analogies that wrap the Kpelle up into a tidy
package, and therein lies much of its attraction” (Chernoff.
1989). The complexities of music as an art form and as a cultural
device is made apparent through the writings of Chernoff, and I feel
this is an important aspect to acknowledge, as it is very easy to over
simplify when attempting to answer questions of an ultimately complex
nature.
Final Thoughts:
John M. Chernoff has presented several ideas such
as, the importance of physical experience when attempting to understand
music and its cultural significance, and his persistent views on the
complexities of culture and how this aspect should be embraced rather
than simplified. Although many of these ideas may not be original
to his own, they do provide a clear a defining distinction between the
study of music through the elitist perspective of musicology and the
now evident importance of culture and music through the study of
ethnomusicology. Chernoff’s wealth of knowledge and experience in
the study of African rhythm and aesthetics, are only magnified by his
ability to clearly portray complex ideas without losing his
authoritative stance. This authority which can be found
throughout all of Mr. Chernoff’s work makes him an effective force in
teaching others about ethnography in practice, and to some degree would
make for either an enlightening or frightening personal encounter,
depending on the circumstance as we have seen earlier in this paper.
Regardless if you are interested in African rhythmic
music or not, if you are an anthropologist and a lover of music, John
M. Chernoff will provide you with an insightful view of the ethnology
of music through his years of first hand experiencing of what is it to
make music.
Bibliography:
Chernoff, John M. 1988. In Sorcery’s Shadow: AMemoir of
Apprenticeship among the Songhay
of Niger [Review]. American Anthropologist, New Series, Vol. 90, No. 3
(Sep., 1988), p.716.
Chernoff, John M. 1984. Music of the Dagomba of Ghana [Review].
Ethnomusicology, Vol. 28, No. 1
(Jan., 1984), p.165-166.
Chernoff John M. 1989. Dried Millet Breaking: Time, Words, and Song in
the Woi Epic of the Kpelle
[Review]. American Anthropologist, New Series, Vol. 91, No. 3 (Sep.,
1989), p.816-817.
Chernoff, John M. 1991. The Rhythmic Medium in African Music. New
Literary History, Vol. 22, No. 4,
Papers from the Commonwealth Center for Literary and Cultural Change
(Autumn, 1991), p.1093-1102.
Glascco, Laurencce. 1981. African Rhythm and African Sensibility:
Aesthetics and Social Action in
African Musical Idioms [Review]. The Journal of Negro History, Vol. 66,
No. 3 (Autumn, 1981), p.257-258.
Johnson, Hafiz S. F., John M. Chernoff. 1991. Basic Conga Drum Rhythms
in Africcan-
American Musical Styles. Black Music Research Journal, Vol. 11, No. 1
(Spring, 1991), p.55-73.
MacClancy, Jeremy., Ed. 2002. Exotic No More: Anthropology on the Front
Lines., Ideas of Culture and the
Challenges of Music, by John Chernoff. The Unversity of Chicago Press.
p.377-398.
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